Key characteristics of life-span development

Key characteristics of aliveness- broom increaseErik Erikson suggests that reading is a life-long continuous process in which gains and losses in development occur passim the life cycle. This challenges the concept of circumstantial flows in Freuds possible action. ontogeny is multidimensionalDevelopment occurs in the biologic, cognitive, and neighborly domains. The biological domain includes the physical changes an psyche experiences throughout the style of their life. This would include growth and development in the body. An example of the biological aspect is hormonal changes during puberty. Puberty is the point in time where the development of sexual characteristics begins, and bequeath allow these humans to become sexually active and be able to produce gametes for reproduction. The challenges an adolescence talent face going through puberty is the need to vary to changes occurring to the physical body, emotional changes such as feeling self-conscious about their ch anging body, and amiable changes such as developing the capacity for abstract judgement and problem-solving.Development is multidirectionalSome aspects of development whitethorn be increasing while others are declining or remains unchanged. For example, during late bragging(a)hood, older adults might become wiser with succession but they perform more than poorly than younger adults on tasks that require speed in processing information.Development is plasticDevelopment can be modified by life circumstances to some extent. According to Paul Baltes, humans have the capacity of plasticity or positive change to environmental difficulties throughout life.For example, an individual who grew up in a broken home environment with an abusive father may turn out fine and do well in adulthood as the issues get healed along the lifespan.Development is dependent on history and contextDevelopment is influenced by diachronic conditions. The historical time period in which we grow up affects o ur development. For example, minorren in premature, middle or late tykehood who grew up amidst a war may experience a lack in moral development when compared to those who grew up in a safe and stable environment. The children may grow up having alter functioning in the cognitive, behavioral, affable and emotional aspect of their development.Development is multidisciplinaryDevelopment is studied by a number of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and medicine. For example in medicine, one firmament of biological research which has significant importance for development is looking into slowing d take the aging process. Their focus is in anti-aging foods and medicines which can reverse the biological soulfulness-to-person effects of aging and some already have shown significant effects in animal studies.Development is contextualDevelopment occurs in the context of a persons biological makeup, physical environment, and social, historical, an d cultural contextsnormative age-graded influences biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group (e.g., puberty, beginning school)normative history-graded influences biological and environmental influences that are associated with history influences that are common to great deal of a particular generation. An example is when the Singapore Government implemented the Stop at twain child policy in 1969 to help control the rapid population growth. It had succeeded in significantly reducing the population however, it had influenced women greatly as they started to pursue careers in the lead having children and this gave rise to numerous University graduated women failing to marry and bear offspring.non-normative life events unusual occurrences that have a major impact on an individuals life the occurrence, pattern, and grade of these events are non applicable to most individuals (e.g., death of a parent at a young age, getting a s erious illness, winning a lottery)Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of LossThe mastery of life often feigns conflicts and competition among three goals of human development growth, maintenance, and regulation. Growth starts primaeval on in life from infancy through late adulthood. Maintenance and regulation follows after that around middle and late adulthood as individuals capacities take centre stage. This is the time of maintaining skills and minimizing deterioration. make-up 2Biological ProcessesBiological processes involve changes in an individuals physical nature. Examples of biological processes includes, star development, height and weight gains, changes in motor skills, hormonal and changes occurring in puberty.I will be focusing on the biological process of puberty which occurs during adolescence. Puberty is a time of maturation of the re successful system and hormonal changes occurring in the brain. During puberty, in the case of males, a hormone called testosterone which are responsible for physical and behavioral masculinization, are released. Studies that use data on adolescents have generally ready positive correlations between testosterone levels and aggressive or anti social behavior. Research on adolescents has also found that higher testosterone levels in adolescents is associated with increased sexual action mechanism (Halpern, et al., 1998), age at first sexual intercourse (Dunne et al, 1997), increased poisonous activity (Booth and Osgood, 1993), increased tobacco and alcohol use (Zitzmann and Nieschlag, 2001). In terms of criminal behavior, Dabbs et al. (1995) conducted a fascinating study of 692 male prison inmates, finding testosterone related to type of crime and to behavior in prison. Testosterone was highest among inmates convicted of child molestation, rape, homicide, and assault, and it was lowest among inmates convicted of burglary, theft, and drug offences.In relation to Eriksons theory, in stage 5 of his Psychosocial theory which identifies the crisis of identity vs. identity confusion, this is a time of trying out new things till the adolescence establishes a personal identity or fails doing so and ends up be confuse with his constituent in life.cognitive ProcessesCognitive processes involve changes in the individuals thought, intelligence, and language.According to Piagets Cognitive Development Theory, children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through 4 stages of cognitive development.Sensorimotor Stage (Birth 2 years)The first stage of cognitive development is where childs are able to construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as captivateing and hearing) with physical (motor) actions. For example, when an object is place in the babes contact and touches its palm, the fingers will then close and grasp it. This is known as the palmar grasps reflex.Preoperational Stage(2 7 years)The second stage is where thought becomes more symbolic, egocentric, and intuitive rather than logical, however, it is not operational. For example, the child is able to conduct symbolic piece of cake in which the children pretend that one object is another. To quote an example, little girls at this stage would conduct role play of a tea party in which they assign soft toys (symbols) roles representing their mother and father. To demonstrate egocentrism of the child at this stage, Piaget conducted the three mountains task in which children were asked to select a picture that showed the three mountains from their tantrumpoint. The children had little problems selecting the correct picture. However, when asked to select a picture from someone elses viewpoint, the children ended up selecting the same picture which showed their own viewpoint. This showed the childrens inability to understand things from another persons perspective.Concrete Operational Stage (7 11 years)This is the stage where logic begins to develop and thus the child is able to soil logically about concrete events and able to recognize the concept of conservation. For example, children in the concrete operational stage is able to distinguish that the volume of water in a tall and narrow cup is equivalent to that in the short and wide cup when equal amounts are poured from the same container. However, the child is unable to think hypothetically and have difficulty understanding abstract concepts.Formal Operational Stage (11 years adulthood)In this stage, the child is able to reason in a more abstract, idealistic and logical manner. The child is able to think theoretically and hypothetically in which the latter is important in subjects such as mathematics and science. The child is less egocentric and thus is able to understand things in a different perspective. The child is also able to conduct deductive reasoning where he is able to reason from generalities to specifics.Socioemotional ProcessesSocioemotional processes involve changes in the individuals relationships with other people, changes in personality and emotions.Eriksons Psychosocial Theory states that the primary motivation for human behavior is social and, reflects a swear to affiliate with other people. Erikson views development as a lifelong process consisting of a unique developmental task that confronts individual with a crisis that requires resolution. Failure to do so would direct in possible detrimental outcomes in adulthood.Eriksons 8 stages of human developmentTrust vs. Mistrust ( 0 1 year)In this stage, the infant is learning to trust others and the world. Trust is established when babies are given adequate and consistent warmth, loving touch and physical care. However, mistrust can develop if inadequate, incongruous care is given by cold, indifferent and rejecting parents.Autonomy vs. Shame Doubt ( 1-3 years)Autonomy is the independence developed when toddlers are encouraged by their parents for doing things by themsel ves (e.g. give notice on shoes) versus the shame and doubt if the caregiver were to reprimand the child for not being able to do the task promptly.Initiative vs. Guilt ( 3- 5 years)This is an filename extension of the second stage where, initiative develops when the pre-school-going child is encouraged to explore and take on new challenges versus the guilt that the child may experience if the parents criticize, prevent play or discourages asking questions.Industry vs. Inferiority ( 6 12 years)This is in the context of primary school where the child is supported or p raised by teachers for doing for productive activities versus the inferiority that may occur if the childs efforts are regarded as inadequate or messy.Identity vs. Role confusion ( 10 20 years)The teenage years involve the need to establish a consistent personal identity versus role confusion where the adolescence is unsure of the direction he is heading.Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s , 30s)In this stage, niggardlines s develops when the individual begins establishing mature relationships with friends, family and eventually a lover or a spouse as he or she has the ability to care for others and sharing experiences with them. However, closing off develops when the individual is deemed as a loner and uncared for in his or her life. There is a relationship between this stage and the first stage which was trust vs. mistrust. For example, if an infant receives consistent tender loving care from the caregivers, trust would be developed and thus this would likely lead to the individual developing functional relationships in his adult life and vice versa, if the infant developed mistrust in his first year of life due to neglect from caregiver, there is a likelihood that the individual might end up being solitary in adulthood.Generativity vs Stagnation (40s , 50s)Generativity refers to the interest in guiding the next generation in terms of red on values and traditions versus stagnation where the individ ual is only concerned with their individual needs and thus values are lost. Examples would be those who are single and/or married without children.Integrity vs. despair ( 60s onwards)Integrity occurs when the individual reflects upon life and has no regrets as they have lived a rich and responsible life versus despair where the individual views previous life events with regrets and experiences heartache and remorse.Theme 3Nature vs. NurtureThe nature-nurture controversy involves the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture. Nature is a product of genetic or prenatal environment where children are born with certain behaviors that are innate and are inborn biases. Nurture on the other hand, is the effects of certain experiences depending on the individuals perception. Genetically, some people are born with defects in their genes that can affect their brain function and emotions. Environmentally, severe cruel treatment of small children can create predispositions to becoming afflicted with no empathy and abnormal behaviors. Jean-Jacques Rousseau believes in noble savages where children were naturally gift with a sense of right and wrong and with an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth.On the contrary, the tabula rasa view by John Locke states that Children are born as unfilled slates and acquire characteristics through experience. This theory favors the nurture aspect of the debate with regards to ones personality, intelligence, social and emotional behavior.I would like to highlight on Schizophrenic serial killers. schizophrenic psychosis is a mental disorder characterized by disintegration of thought processes and of emotional responsiveness. It most commonly manifests as auditoryhallucinations,paranoidor bizarredelusions, or disorganized speech and sentiment, and it is accompanied by significant social or occupational dysfunction.The disease is mostly genetically inherited as those having a first-degree relative wi th the disease are at a higher risk of developing it. An example of a notorious serial killer suffering from this disease is Ed Gein. He was not only known for brutally killing two women but for exhuming their corpses from local graveyards and fashioned trophies and keepsakes from their bones and skin. It was the horrific way of mutilation and the bizarre bring out of body parts in his home that raises questions as to why someone would do such a cruel act. Ed grew up in a strict and religious family with the presence of both parents in the household. A shy, effeminate boy, the younger Gein became a target for bullies. To make matters worse, his mother punished him whenever he move to make friends. She also abused him and his brother. Despite his poor social development, he did fairly well in school, particularly in reading. Death in the family followed as firstly, his father died and then his brother and followed by his mother. All these environmental factors accounts for the abno rmal behavioral patterns elicited by Ed. Therefore in this example, we cant safely take root that traits of a serial killer are purely genetic (nature) or purely environmental (nurture).However it is the fundamental interaction between these two traits that causes development of such a behavior.Continuity vs. DiscontinuityThis issue focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).Developmentalists who emphasize nurture describe development as a gradual, continuous process whereas those who emphasizes nature often describe development as a series of distinct stages.For example, Freuds stage model of psychosexual development, theorized that children systematically move through distinct stages of oral, anal, phallic, and latency stages before reaching mature adult sexuality in the genital stage. Proponents of stage theories of development also suggest that individuals go through critical periods, which are times of increased and favored sensitivity to particular aspects of development. For example, early childhood (the first 5 years) is a critical period for language acquisition. Thus, most adults find it difficult or impossible to master a second language during their adult years while young children raised in bilingual homes normally learn second languages easily during childhood.Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freuds ideas by proposing astage theory of psychosocial development.Eriksons theory focused on conflicts that arise at different stages of development and, unlike Freuds theory, Erikson described development throughout the lifespan..Stability vs. ChangeThis issue involves the degree to which we become older renditions of our early experience or we develop into someone different from who we were at an early point in development. Many developmentalists who emphasize stability in development surround that stability is the result of heredity and possibly early experiences in life. Relating back to the above example of Ed Gein, he grew up socially introverted as he was discouraged making friends by his mother. In this case, he has attained stability where his personal experiences early on in childhood became a accelerator for who he would turn out to be in adulthood a serial killer.On the contrary, developmentalists who emphasize change take the more optimistic view that later experiences can produce change. I would like to quote the example of Liz Murray repair known for being Homeless to Harvard. Murray grew up in the Bronx, New York to poor, drug addicted, and HIV-positive parents. She overcame hardships in her youth and struggled her way to achieve success and was accepted into Harvard University. Such, is an example of change that can occur later on in life and proves that early experiences can shape us in different ways.Theme 4With regards to my friends extreme view that Eriksons psychosocial perspective was sufficient in describing human life span development, I disagree to that statement as they are many other theories to consider before making a conclusion as to which was sufficient.Psychoanalytic theoriesThe terra firma of Eriksons psychosocial theory is influenced by Freuds psychosexual theory. Eriksons works on extending Freuds theory as he found that Freuds ideas lacked vital social dimensions, and through his research and findings, it provided a discover for his biopsychosocial perspective. Eriksons view of human development was life-long through his 8 stages which occur throughout life whereas Freuds view of development was through critical periods which consist of the 5 stages at adolescent.Freud proposed that in the first stage, if the nursing childs appetite were thwarted during anylibidinaldevelopment stage, theanxietywould persist into adulthood as aneurosis(functional mental disorder). If aninfant is not fed enough (neglected) or fed too much (over-protected) in the course of being nursed, it may result i n the child growing up as an orally fixated adult. Oral-stage fixation may have one of two effects (i) the underfed or neglected child might become a psychologically dependent adult continually seeking the oral stimulation denied in infancy, thereby becoming a manipulative person in fulfilling his or her needs, rather than maturing to independence (ii) the over-protected or over-fed child might resist growing up and return to being dependent upon others. Example of the precedent would be an individual who grows up to be an orally fixated adult who is an over-eater or a smoking addict to compensate for the insufficient oral stimulation as an infant. On the contrary, the latter is an individual who grows up to be dependent on others and demanding satisfaction through acting helpless, crying and being needy. Therefore this highlights the importance of critical periods in Freuds stage theory.In Eriksons theory on the other hand, it presented individuals with a crisis at each stage wher e, depending on how one handle the challenge, it will result in positive or negative outcomes which can significantly affect ones personality and development.The benefits of this theory is that it emphasizes on the eight character-forming crisis stages, the concept also asserts that humans keep open to change and develop throughout their lives, and that personality is not exclusively formed during early childhood years. It is certainly a view that greatly assists encouraging oneself and others to see the future as an opportunity for positive change and development, instead of looking back with blame and regret. The better that people come through each crisis, the better they will tend to deal with what lies ahead, but this is not to say that all is lost and never to be recovered if a person has had a negative experience during any particular crisis stage.However with every theory, there are limitations and this includes Eriksons theory. One of which is its ambiguous terms and conce pts which can have several interpretations. Another reason is its lack of precision as some terms cannot be easily measure empirically. The experiences in some stages may only apply to males and not females.Cognitive theoriesPiagets cognitive development theory presented cognitive development through 4 stages focusing on sensory experiences and physical actions (sensorimotor skills) and this provided the importance of examining developmental changes in childrens thinking.Vygotsky on the other hand, added a social and cultural aspect to his cognitive theory naming it the Sociocultural cognitive theory. He gave emphasize on social interaction and culture in shaping a childs cognitive process. He stresses that knowledge is not generated from within, but rather constructed through interaction with persons and cultural objects (such as books, computers).Banduras social cognitive theory focuses on the importance of environment to an individuals behavior. He emphasized the process of obser vational learning though imitation or modeling where people cognitively represent the behavior of others and adopt this behavior themselves.Information -processing theory emphasizes that human beings are active information processors that bring forth the process of thinking and thus learning good strategies for processing information is crucial.There are many factors that can affect human life span development and this includes the developmental processes in 3 key areas namely biological, cognitive and socioemotional. These three processes work hand in hand in the development of an integrated individual with a mind and body that are interdependent. The different theories address the different aspects of development and thus we cant conclude that only the Erikson theory best describes human development. Instead, adopting an eclecticist approach is more accurate as it selects the best features from each theory. For example, Freuds theory best explains the unconscious mind while Erikso ns theory best describes development being a life-long process and highlights the changes occurring in each stage. Piagets theory views cognitive development through sensorimotor and operational stages. Vygotsky added a social and cultural aspect to it and information-processing theory views humans as being capable to actively process information. Combining the three cognitive theories provided a holistic approach to cognitive development.Behavioral and social cognitive theories such as Banduras, provided environmental influences on development.In conclusion, there is not one theory that can adequately explain human development but rather adopting an eclectic approach provided the best solution in holistically understanding human development.